Chapter 48: The Clash of Wu and Chu

During the reign of King Shoumeng of Wu, the state of Wu began to rise and gradually became an unignorable power in the south. Wuchen, a shaman representative who had a grudge against Zifan of Chu, came to Wu from Jin and earnestly sought to curry favor with King Shoumeng. Through Wuchen’s efforts, the relationship between Wu and Jin grew closer. Wuchen also brought thirty war chariots from Jin to Wu, training the Wu army in their use and in battle formations, significantly upgrading their equipment and greatly enhancing their combat effectiveness. Moreover, Wuchen brought his son Guyong to Wu, and King Shoumeng appointed Guyong as a diplomat.

With its growing strength, Wu began active expansion, attacking the eastern border of Chu as well as the states of Zholai (northeast of present-day Chaohu, Anhui) and Xu (northwest of present-day Sizhou, Anhui). When Chu convened the gathering at Maling, Wu seized the opportunity to attack Zholai, causing great headaches for the Chu rulers Zifan and Zizhong.

In the fifteenth year of Duke Cheng of Lu’s reign (576 BCE), Jin hosted a conference of feudal lords at Zhongli (east of present-day Fengyang, Anhui). Wu, aiming to join the ranks of the Central Plains states, sent envoys to attend. After persistent incursions by Wu, Chu finally launched a punitive expedition against Wu in the fifth year of Duke Xiang of Lu’s reign (568 BCE), led by Zizhong. However, the Chu forces were ultimately defeated by Wu, and Chu’s general Deng Liao was captured. Wu then attacked Chu and captured Jiayi (within present-day Wuwei, Anhui). Due to the ongoing conflict, King Shoumeng did not attend the Jin conference at Jize (east of present-day Handan, Hebei). He subsequently sent the minister Shou Yue to Jin to explain and express his wish to meet the lords. In 563 BCE, King Shoumeng finally met with the Central Plains lords, led by Duke Dao of Jin, at Xiangdi (present-day Pizhou, Jiangsu), marking Wu’s true entry into the contest for hegemony.

In the twelfth year of Duke Xiang of Lu’s reign (561 BCE), King Shoumeng passed away. The following year, King Zhufan ascended the throne. Despite his accession, warfare between Wu and Chu continued, with notable battles such as the Battle of Gaozhou and the Naval Campaign. In the twenty-sixth year of Duke Xiang’s reign (547 BCE), King Zhufan personally led troops against Chu. During the siege of Chu’s Chaoyi, he was ambushed and wounded by Chu forces and died shortly after returning to Wu.

After King Zhufan’s death, King Yuji took the throne. In the twenty-eighth year of Duke Xiang’s reign (545 BCE), Qing Feng, the prime minister of Qi, fled to Wu. Qing Feng was originally a noble in Qi who had risen to power amidst political struggles, becoming prime minister. However, he was indulgent in drinking and pleasure, neglecting governance, delegating affairs to his son while he spent his time in debauchery with concubines and wealth. Eventually, his political position was usurped by the noble Chen Wenzi and his son Chen Wuyu, forcing Qing Feng to seek refuge. He first fled to Lu but was unwelcome due to Qi’s pressure, so he moved on to Wu. King Yuji granted Qing Feng the fief of Zhufang and married him to a princess of the royal family, elevating his status beyond what he had in Qi and demonstrating Wu’s stature as a great power.

Following this, Chu descended into internal turmoil and political instability. In the twenty-ninth year of Duke Xiang’s reign (544 BCE), Wu took advantage of Chu’s disorder to invade the vassal state of Yue. In the same year, a Yue captive tasked by the Wu to oversee ships seized the opportunity during King Yuji’s inspection visit to kill the king of Wu. After Yuji’s death, King Yumei ascended the throne. After the envoy Ji Zha’s diplomatic missions, King Yumei sent Qu Guyong, Wuchen’s son, as envoy to Jin, aiming to form an alliance with Jin against Chu.

In the second year of Duke Zhao of Lu’s reign (540 BCE), Chu experienced another power struggle, leading to the ascension of King Ling of Chu. King Ling secured the throne through his own strength and was ambitious and competitive among the feudal states. In the fourth year of Duke Zhao’s reign (538 BCE), with Jin’s consent, Chu hosted a conference of lords at Shendi. At this meeting, King Ling declared Chu’s political intentions to expand eastward and sounded the call to wage war against Wu. During the conference, Chu arrested the ruler of Xu, accusing him of divided loyalties due to his mother’s Wu origin, using this as a pretext to detain him. This action not only asserted King Ling’s political stance but also served as a stern warning to the other attending lords.

That summer, Chu launched an attack on Wu, besieging Zhufang and capturing Qing Feng, who was then executed along with his entire clan. The total annihilation of Qing Feng’s family was motivated by his intelligence work for Wu, which had earned the enmity of Jin, Chu, and others. After Chu and its allies took Zhufang, they also destroyed the state of Lai. Since Lai’s ruler surrendered, King Ling relocated Lai’s people to Yandi.

Feeling deeply humiliated, King Yumei immediately retaliated against Chu. Chu, unwilling to be outdone, launched another offensive against Wu in the winter of the fifth year of Duke Zhao’s reign (537 BCE). King Ling led armies from Cai, Chen, Xu, Dun, and other states, along with Eastern Yi tribes, to invade Wu. Yue also sent troops to join Chu at Suo. Wu defeated the Chu forces at Que’an and forced their retreat in what became known as the Battle of Que’an. The following year, Chu captured the visiting Xu prince Yi and imprisoned him. However, Yi soon escaped back to Xu. Fearing Xu’s betrayal, Chu attacked Xu, prompting Wu to send forces to aid Xu. At Fangzhong, the Wu army decisively defeated Chu and captured the prince Qiji, marking the Battle of Fangzhong.

Within three years after Chu’s capture of Zhufang and execution of Qing Feng, Wu and Chu engaged in three major battles—all victories for Wu. These successive triumphs deeply unsettled King Ling, revealing his fear of the Wu army. Wu’s string of successes reflected its growing national strength and its emerging role as a contender for dominance in the Central Plains.

In the fourteenth year of Duke Zhao’s reign (528 BCE), King Ping ascended the throne of Chu, becoming its new ruler. Two years later, in 526 BCE, King Liao became the new monarch of Wu. King Liao continued the policy of resisting Chu, and the struggle between the two states persisted, with Zholai remaining a key contested area. Wu captured Zholai twice but lost it again to Chu both times. In the twenty-third year of Duke Zhao’s reign (519 BCE), King Liao decided to launch an offensive against Chu, targeting Zholai.

Leading the expedition with Prince Helü and others, King Liao advanced into Chu territory. Upon receiving news of the invasion, King Ping promptly dispatched troops to confront them. He appointed Sima Yuezhi to lead a coalition army of seven states to meet the enemy at Zholai and ordered the ailing prime minister Zixia (also known as Yang Gui) to oversee the campaign. Facing the formidable coalition, King Liao ordered Wu’s forces to withdraw, lifting the siege of Zholai. However, instead of retreating home, the Wu army relocated to Zhongli to observe the coalition’s movements.

The decision to send the sick Zixia on campaign proved disastrous. During the operation, Zixia died in the field, severely damaging Chu’s morale and resolve. Consequently, Sima Yuezhi led the allied forces in retreat to Jifu for regrouping before resuming hostilities. Upon hearing of Zixia’s death, Prince Helü saw a prime opportunity to strike and proposed to King Liao that Wu’s army should trail the retreating coalition and seize the moment. Helü further analyzed the coalition’s weaknesses: though nominally a seven-state alliance, only Chu was strong; the other states were weak and coerced by Chu; their rulers were inexperienced and reckless in Hu and Shen; Chen’s commander was stubborn and inflexible; Dun, Cai, and Xu were resentful allies with Chu, creating internal discord. Moreover, Chu’s morale was low after losing their commander, and Sima Yuezhi’s inexperience in leadership further undermined their effectiveness.

Given these faults, the ostensibly powerful coalition was riddled with vulnerabilities. Exploiting these could enable Wu to triumph despite being outnumbered. King Liao accepted Helü’s advice and devised the following plan: the Wu army would swiftly approach the coalition, launch a surprise attack the day after the allies rested at Jifu, and utilize the “hui ri”—an inauspicious day traditionally avoided for battle due to superstition—for a sudden assault. Wu’s forces would first engage the smaller allied states’ troops before concentrating on Chu itself, preparing all for battle.

On the appointed “hui ri,” the Wu army suddenly appeared on the battlefield at Jifu. Sima Yuezhi hastily arranged the allied forces, placing the six allied states in front of Chu’s troops to blunt the Wu assault. Wu’s forces first attacked the armies of Hu, Shen, and Chen, using captured prisoners as a vanguard. Mistaking the disorganized Wu troops for a weak force, the three armies scrambled to capture the prisoners, throwing their ranks into chaos. Seizing this moment, Wu’s main forces launched a fierce assault, routing the three armies. The rulers of Hu and Shen, along with Chen’s commander, were captured; their scattered troops fled in panic, sowing fear among the other allied forces.

Riding this momentum, Wu turned to attack the armies of Xu, Cai, and Dun. Already uneasy allies of Chu, these states quickly collapsed under Wu’s relentless onslaught. Wu’s lightning-fast victory shattered the coalition’s forces, and the Chu army, still unorganized and shaken by the allied rout, lost heart and retreated alongside the fleeing troops. Through sound strategy and tactics, Wu secured a decisive victory at Jifu and reclaimed Zholai.

The Battle of Jifu marked a pivotal turning point in the Wu-Chu rivalry. Before this, Chu had been a dominant power during the Spring and Autumn period, frequently contesting hegemony with Jin. Wu’s rise began under King Shoumeng, and although Wu had achieved victories over Chu before, it was still comparatively weaker. The triumph at Jifu, won through cunning stratagems, demonstrated Wu’s ability to overcome superior forces. This victory not only dealt a blow to Chu’s influence but also intimidated neighboring states, gradually earning Wu recognition among the Central Plains lords.

After the battle, Wu solidified control over the strategic Zholai region and gained an advantage in the Jianghuai area. King Ping’s consort, the mother of the persecuted prince Jian, came to Wu with the victorious army. At the time, Jian’s son Sheng—King Ping’s grandson—was living in Wu, prompting the consort’s arrival. The Chu commander Sima Yuezhi, devastated by the outcome, committed suicide. Chu had truly “lost both the lady and the troops” in this campaign, gaining nothing. For a long time afterward, Chu refrained from initiating offensives against Wu, adopting a defensive stance, while Wu gradually seized the initiative in their rivalry. Under King Fuchai, Wu’s power would reach its zenith.