Chapter 37: The Rise and Fall of Jin Once Again

The efforts of Duke Dao of Jin to achieve hegemony reached their zenith at the covenant of Xingqiu, marking the peak of the state of Jin’s power under the concerted efforts of its ruler and ministers.

Xingqiu is located east of present-day Wen County in Henan Province. In the fifth month of the summer of the eighth year of Duke Xiang of Lu (565 BCE), Duke Dao of Jin summoned Jisun Su of Lu, Duke Jian of Zheng, Gao Hou, a grand officer of Qi, Xiang Xu, a general of Song, Ning Zhi of Wei, and grand officers of Zhu to convene at Xingqiu. Prior to this, the Duke had just gathered the Marquis of Lu, the Duke of Song, Chen Huan, the Marquis of Wei, the Earl of Cao, the Viscount of Ju, and the Viscount of Zhu to discuss the rescue of the state of Chen.

The relationship of the state of Chen was similar to that of Zheng. In the early Spring and Autumn period, Chen relied on Zheng, which even influenced the appointment and removal of Chen’s rulers. After the death of Duke Zhuang of Zheng, however, the state of Zheng declined while the state of Chu grew stronger, leading Chen to shift its allegiance to Chu. Following the Battle of Chengpu, where Jin defeated Chu and Duke Wen of Jin became one of the five hegemons, the pro-Chu state of Chen gradually leaned toward Jin. This shift invited retaliation from Chu, and under military pressure, Chen was forced to return to the fold of Chu. Chen’s vacillation, however, drew dissatisfaction and attacks from Jin. Caught between two major powers, Chen was forced to sway back and forth, suffering constant incursions from both.

In the third year of Duke Xiang of Lu (570 BCE), Duke Dao of Jin convened the lords at Jize. Chen, unable to bear the extreme exploitation by Chu, sent envoys to Jize to seek peace with the Marquis of Jin. Learning of this, Chu attacked Chen directly while inciting its allies to strike from the flanks. To save Chen, Duke Dao of Jin convened the lords multiple times. Two years later, when Chu attacked the disloyal Chen again, Duke Dao gathered the forces of Lu, Song, Wei, and Wu at Qi to coordinate the defense of Chen.

It was during this standoff between Jin and Chu over Chen that the Shanrong state of Wuzhong (east of present-day Taiyuan, Shanxi) sent envoys to Jin to offer tiger and leopard skins, hoping for peace. Duke Dao initially intended to refuse, viewing the Rong and Di as greedy and lacking in righteousness. However, his advisor Wei Jiang, possessing great political foresight, cited the downfall of Hou Yi of the Xia Dynasty to warn the Duke against becoming obsessed with hunting, and detailed five benefits of making peace with the Rong and Di. Convinced, the Duke sent Wei Jiang to negotiate. This removed the threat to Jin’s rear as it contended with Chu in the south.

Beyond Chen, the state of Zheng also swayed between Jin and Chu. Duke Dao of Jin made the subjugation of Zheng and its inclusion in his alliance a primary goal for restoring Jin’s hegemony. Zheng, trapped between the two superpowers, faced attacks from Jin if it leaned toward Chu, and strikes from Chu if it leaned toward Jin. Seeking neutrality only resulted in both sides refusing to recognize its position, causing Zheng great suffering. Eventually, the ruler of Zheng followed his ministers' advice to simply align with whichever power was stronger at the moment.

In the eighth year of Duke Xiang of Lu (565 BCE), to provoke Chu, Zheng sent troops to attack the state of Cai, which was allied with Chu, capturing the Cai commander Gongzi Xie. That same year, Duke Dao of Jin held the covenant at Xingqiu, where he set standardized requirements for tribute and ritual gifts from the lords, demanding obedience from their grand officers. Duke Jian of Zheng, to demonstrate his loyalty to Jin, publicly presented the captured commander of Cai to Duke Dao and pledged that henceforth, Zheng would follow only Jin. The covenant at Xingqiu and the subjugation of Zheng became the hallmarks of Duke Dao’s hegemony.

However, in the winter of that year, Chu retaliated against Zheng for its alliance with Jin and its attack on Cai. With Chu’s army at the gates, internal divisions erupted in Zheng: ministers Zisi, Ziguo, and Zier advocated for surrender to Chu, while Zikong, Ziqiao, and Zizhan insisted on waiting for reinforcements from Jin. Ultimately, the pro-Chu faction prevailed, and Zheng returned to the side of Chu.

The following year, Duke Dao of Jin prepared to attack Zheng, summoning the forces of Song, Wei, Cao, Ju, and Zhu. Soon, the allied forces besieged the capital of Zheng. Fearing destruction, Zheng again sent envoys to beg for peace. Within the court of Jin, opinions differed: Xun Yan urged a siege and a decisive battle with Chu, arguing that only by crushing Chu could Zheng be made truly loyal. Zhi Ying, however, argued that a direct clash between two powers would only weaken both. He devised a strategy to "exhaust Chu" by withdrawing from Zheng, inducing Chu to attack Jin, and then using the four armies of Jin—along with the forces of the lords—to fight the Chu army in rotation. As the Chu army was far from home, fatigued, and lacking stable supply lines, they would surely be unable to sustain such prolonged warfare.

Duke Dao followed Zhi Ying’s advice, withdrew from Zheng, and later held a covenant with the lords and Zheng at Xie. However, as Zheng did not fully comply with all of Jin’s demands at this meeting, Jin soon led the allied armies to besiege Zheng again. Thinking Zheng had allied with Jin, Chu also attacked Zheng. Trapped between the two, Zheng was in dire straits and finally begged for peace from Chu, concluding a covenant within its own capital.

After failing to secure Zheng from Chu, Duke Dao ordered a cessation of hostilities and returned home to implement policies of rest and recuperation. Following Wei Jiang’s advice, he distributed grain and cloth from the state granaries to the people, ordered the noble families to lend their own surplus to the populace, and led by example in promoting frugality and reducing court expenditures. Within a year, the power of Jin increased significantly, and the domestic economy improved greatly.

Meanwhile, Zheng, exhausted by years of acting as a vanguard for Chu, fell into chaos as the people revolted. The rebels killed Gongzi Fei, Gongzi Fa, and Gongsun Zhe, and held Duke Jian of Zheng captive. Eventually, the minister Zichan quelled the rebellion, and Gongzi Jia took over the administration.

Seizing the opportunity provided by Zheng’s internal strife, Duke Dao of Jin once again summoned the lords to besiege Zheng. Following the advice of Zhongsun Mie of Lu, he built fortifications at Hulao, Wu, and Zhi to intimidate Zheng. When Zheng later attempted to attack Jin’s ally, Song, Jin ordered the lords to surround Zheng from all sides. Duke Dao and the chief minister Han Jue reviewed the troops outside the southern gate of Zheng, continuously reinforcing their position until the people of Zheng submitted to Jin once more.

In the autumn of 562 BCE, Jin and Zheng, along with other lords, met at Bo (modern-day Zhengzhou, Henan). Duke Dao established a covenant: all allies were to provide mutual aid, refuse to harbor criminals or treacherous elements, share resources, avoid monopolizing the benefits of rivers and lakes, and unite in support of the royal house.

Soon after, however, Chu received support from Qin—an enemy of Jin—and attacked Zheng again. Unable to resist, Zheng broke its covenant with Jin and submitted to Chu. Consequently, in the ninth month, Duke Dao of Jin led the allied forces against Zheng. Under the threat of the allied armies, Zheng submitted to Jin once more. Subsequently, Jin held a covenant at Xiaoyu (modern-day Xuchang, Henan). This time, Zizhan of Zheng presented Duke Dao with lavish gifts, including one hundred war chariots and sixteen beauties, which finally convinced the Duke to allow Zheng to re-enter the alliance.

Thus, Zheng, which had vacillated between Jin and Chu for years, finally committed to Jin, and Duke Dao emerged victorious in the struggle for hegemony. Even King Shoumeng of Wu in the south voluntarily sent envoys to request an alliance with Jin. With Chu contained on its eastern border and hesitant to act, Jin gained the initiative in the century-long struggle for dominance between the two powers.

Duke Dao of Jin was truly a talented and capable ruler. His consecutive victories over Chu, his alliance with the Rong and Di in the north, and his ability to win the sincere submission of surrounding small states brought Jin back to the path of hegemony, reaching another peak in history.

Tragically, fate is often jealous of talent. In the fifteenth year of Duke Xiang of Lu (558 BCE), the young Duke Dao fell ill and passed away. He was not yet thirty years old, and with his death, the restoration of Jin’s hegemony came to a halt.

After the death of Duke Dao, Duke Ping of Jin ascended the throne. The following year, leveraging the remaining prestige of his predecessor’s hegemony, he convened the lords at Kuliang (north of modern-day Jiyuan, Shanxi). The rulers of ten states, including the Marquis of Lu, the Duke of Song, and the Duke of Zheng, attended, though Qi sent only its grand officer Gao Hou. Duke Ping first demanded that states return seized lands and then feasted the lords at Wen.

During the banquet, the grand officers performed rituals, dances, and recited poems to express their support for the alliance. However, the poem recited by Gao Hou of Qi betrayed dissatisfaction with Jin. Xun Yan of Jin sensed this and spoke of it, causing Gao Hou to fear retaliation and flee before the meeting concluded. After the banquet, the lords swore an oath to jointly punish anyone who defied the royal commands. The meeting, however, failed to achieve the intended unity, and Qi subsequently harassed the state of Lu, significantly diminishing Jin’s influence among the lords.

In the same year, Jin attacked Chu in retaliation for Chu’s attack on Song. The two armies clashed at Zhanban, where the Chu forces led by Gongzi Ge were defeated and pursued all the way to the Fangcheng passes (northeast of modern-day Fangcheng, Henan), once again demonstrating Jin’s extraordinary strength.

Because of the insolence shown by Qi’s official at Kuliang and Qi’s subsequent attacks on Lu, the armies of Jin, Lu, Song, and Wei joined forces in the eighteenth year of Duke Xiang of Lu (555 BCE) to attack Qi. Duke Ling of Qi organized a defense at Pingyin (northeast of modern-day Pingyin, Shandong). As the terrain offered no tactical advantage, the Qi army was soundly defeated with heavy casualties.

Fan Gai, the commander of the Jin army, used a feint to deceive Duke Ling of Qi. Upon hearing that Jin’s massive army was pressing down and seeing their "imposing force" from the city walls, Duke Ling fled Pingyin under the cover of darkness. The Jin army pursued the victory, capturing Jingzi and Shiyi (west of modern-day Pingyin), and besieged Luyi (southwest of modern-day Changqing). Later, the Jin and Lu armies turned to attack Linyi, surrounding it completely. Duke Ling of Qi, fearing for his capital, Linzi, prepared to flee to Youtang but was stopped by the Crown Prince Guang and the official Guo Rong. The Jin army subsequently plundered the territory of Qi before returning home.

In the spring of the following year, Jin organized a covenant of the lords at Zhuke (northeast of modern-day Changqing, Shandong) with the pledge that "great states shall not invade small ones," specifically targeting Qi’s invasion of Lu. At this meeting, the Jin punished the state of Zhu, transferring land north of the Qu River to Lu, as punishment for Zhu’s complicity in Qi’s attack on Lu. On the return journey, while passing through Lu, the Duke of Lu hosted the six ministers of Jin. In the twentieth year of Duke Xiang of Lu (553 BCE), thirteen states including Jin, Qi, and Lu signed a covenant at Chanyuan (northwest of modern-day Puyang, Henan), finally reconciling Jin and Qi and temporarily ending the conflict.

During the early reign of Duke Ping, Jin still possessed sufficient strength to maintain its hegemony. However, after the victory over Qi, the situation began to change. Domestic struggles within Jin extinguished any remaining ambition for large-scale external military campaigns, a trend that became evident in the latter part of Duke Ping’s reign. Furthermore, his unpopular actions accelerated the state's decline.

Duke Ping’s mother was from the state of Qi (Qi state). Leveraging his position as hegemon, he frequently favored Qi and even called upon other lords to build walls for them. In the twenty-ninth year of Duke Xiang of Lu (544 BCE), Duke Ping ordered his minister Xun Ying (Zhi Daozi) to summon the lords to discuss building walls for Qi. As Qi was a small state, none of the other lords wished to waste manpower and resources on a project with no return.

The lords’ grand officers criticized Duke Ping’s abuse of power for personal gain. Zi Shu of Zheng provided a grand justification for their refusal: he noted that the royal house of Zhou was in decline, and while Jin was a state of the Ji clan, it was instead favoring the state of Qi, which was a descendant of the Xia Dynasty. He challenged Jin, asking, "If you abandon the clans of the Ji, who will return to you?" Following this, Jin’s prestige plummeted, and Duke Ping’s demand that Lu return land to Qi further fueled Lu’s resentment.

Years later, Duke Ping married a woman from Qi named Shao Jiang. The Qi official Chen Wuyu escorted her to Jin. Shao Jiang was favored by the Duke, but because Chen Wuyu was not a high minister, his escorting the bride was considered a breach of ritual. Duke Ping blamed Chen Wuyu and had him imprisoned. Shao Jiang pleaded for him, but the Duke refused to release him until Shu Xiang intervened, arguing, "My lord, your conduct is already skewed; how can you continue to act as a hegemon?" Only then did the Duke relent. After Shao Jiang passed away, the other lords sent envoys to mourn the Duke’s favorite concubine, a gesture that the ministers of Jin felt was excessive.

The year after Shao Jiang’s death, Qi sent Yan Ying to Jin to request that another woman be sent to fill her place. After handling the betrothal gifts, Yan Ying was hosted by the Jin minister Shu Xiang. Discussing the state of their respective nations, Yan Ying remarked that in Qi, "The Duke has abandoned his people, and the state is falling into the hands of the Chen clan." Shu Xiang replied that in Jin, "Government lies within the homes of the ministers, the people have no one to rely on, and the ruler continues to indulge in pleasure, ignoring his worries. With the ducal house so diminished, how much longer can it last?" Yan Ying pointed to the rise of the Tian clan in Qi, while Shu Xiang lamented the corruption of Duke Ping and the power of the ministerial families, signaling the decline of the Jin ducal house. Later, when the Jin minister Xun Ying died, Duke Ping, preoccupied with drinking and music, feigned ignorance. Though he wished to use the vacancy to appoint a favorite, the power of the ministerial families forced him to appoint Xun Ying’s son, Xun Li, as a minister.

By this time, the ruler of Jin could no longer control major domestic affairs, and his management of the lords had become ineffective. In the eleventh year of Duke Zhao of Lu (531 BCE), King Ling of Chu killed the Marquis of Cai and besieged the state. Jin summoned the lords to discuss a rescue, but dared not engage Chu in battle. In the end, Jin only sent envoys to plead for mercy for Cai. King Ling of Chu refused, conquered Cai, and killed the heir apparent.

That same year, Duke Ping of Jin passed away, and Duke Zhao of Jin succeeded him. The state of Jin was already on the verge of disintegration, and its hegemony was fading into history.