Chapter 27: Loyalty to the Sovereign versus Loyalty to the State

From the incident where King Wen of Chu dared to refuse opening the gates for soldiers retreating after defeat, it is evident that the noble Yu Quan of Chu was a man of fierce temperament, a loyal minister who dared to challenge authority and speak frankly in counsel. It was precisely due to the presence of such ministers that King Wen was able to avoid impulsive mistakes in decision-making and lead Chu along the right path.

Yu Quan, a descendant of the Chu royal family, served under King Wen. He was loyal and upright, devoted wholeheartedly to the country, following King Wen until death. His character and deeds closely resembled those of the famed Qu Yuan. Throughout his life, two events especially reflected his integrity and righteousness as a minister.

The first occurred during King Wen’s campaign against the state of Cai. Using the pretext that Cai had sent troops to aid Xi, King Wen defeated Cai and captured Duke Ai of Cai, bringing him back as a prisoner. Duke Ai, perceiving the schemes between Chu and Xi, flew into a rage, cursing the King of Xi as cruel and King Wen as lawless. Such insults could not be tolerated by King Wen, who resolved to boil Duke Ai alive as an offering to the ancestral temple.

Yu Quan, assessing the situation, sensed something amiss and advised King Wen. He argued that Duke Ai’s insolence did not warrant such brutal punishment. Chu was about to enter the Central Plains and, beyond military conquest, needed to win the support of many smaller states. Sparing the ruler of Cai and forming an alliance would not only strengthen Chu but also leave an image of King Wen as magnanimous and enlightened, laying a solid diplomatic foundation for the future.

Yu Quan’s reasoning was both timely and reasonable. As a latecomer to the Central Plains, Chu was at a disadvantage compared with its greatest rival, Qi, which had long established deep roots and alliances with other states. Chu faced a situation of being outnumbered and needed to fracture Qi’s coalition by forming its own alliances. If King Wen entered the Central Plains with a reputation for cruelty, the other states would be deterred or even join Qi, strengthening the enemy and posing endless threats to Chu’s expansion. Sacrificing long-term interests to satisfy momentary anger was clearly unwise.

King Wen likely understood this but, as a sovereign, could not permit his dignity to be questioned. If even a prisoner like Duke Ai dared to act so defiantly, who would respect King Wen thereafter? Thus, he ignored Yu Quan’s earnest counsel and ordered Duke Ai to be cast into boiling oil.

Seeing King Wen’s stubbornness, Yu Quan’s frustration boiled over. The clash between the state’s welfare and the king’s personal pride became acute. A minister must not lose principles but make choices beneficial to both ruler and country. With no other recourse, Yu Quan took a drastic step: he drew his knife and placed the blade against King Wen’s neck, glaring fiercely, threatening that he would rather die together with the king than allow him to commit such injustice and bring shame to the realm.

Startled and fearful, King Wen withdrew the order and spared Duke Ai. Yu Quan then threw down his knife, knelt before the king, and offered to die, acknowledging that while the king’s acceptance of advice was a blessing, threatening the sovereign with a weapon was deeply disrespectful and deserved punishment. King Wen, though shaken, pardoned him, recognizing Yu Quan’s loyalty and the necessity of his bold act.

Yet Yu Quan remained steadfast, and before the court, he took an axe to his own knees, declaring he dared not pardon himself and that any minister ignoring proper etiquette should take this as a warning. King Wen was aghast and ordered his rescue. The legs Yu Quan had severed were offered at the ancestral temple as a reminder. Though maimed, Yu Quan was appointed guardian of the city gates—a supreme honor for him.

The second event took place when King Wen led troops to quell a rebellion by the Ba state and the Yan’ao tribe. Ba and Chu had been allies but with a fragile relationship, and tensions had surfaced during joint campaigns against the state of Shen. This rift widened until, in the seventeenth year of Duke Zhuang of Lu’s reign (677 BCE), Ba rebelled, attacking the lands of minister Yan’ao. Yan’ao fled to the capital but was executed by King Wen. Enraged, Yan’ao’s people joined Ba in open revolt, amassing considerable force.

King Wen led his army to suppress the rebellion but, due to arrogance and underestimating the enemy, suffered a crushing defeat and was himself wounded by an arrow. Forced to retreat, he sought to regroup at the capital. However, upon arrival, Yu Quan, guarding the city gates, refused him entry. Yu Quan believed that since King Wen’s accession, Chu had been undefeated, but now it had suffered disgrace before the weak Ba state. The army’s failure and their eagerness to retreat without a plan brought great shame upon Chu. Yu Quan insisted the king attack the weaker state of Huang first to claim a victory and restore morale before returning home.

Although furious, King Wen had no choice but to comply. He turned his army toward Huang, and despite the prior defeat, Chu’s forces prevailed steadily, regaining lost ground and allowing for a dignified return. Yet fate was cruel: King Wen fell ill and died in the army, passing away shortly after the victory over Huang, thus bringing his distinguished career to a close.

News of his death quickly spread, and Yu Quan was overcome with guilt, feeling responsible for forcing the king to endure arduous campaigns and for barring him from the city. He buried King Wen in the royal tomb and then took his own life to demonstrate his loyalty.

Throughout his life, Yu Quan fulfilled his duties as a minister and remained true to his conscience without regret. His forthright counsel, sometimes extreme in form yet resolute in intent, is rare in Chinese history, showing the loyalty and difficulty of serving a sovereign. Loyal ministers often found themselves suspected despite their faithfulness, caught between loyalty to the ruler and loyalty to the nation. When a king was foolish, the conflict between these loyalties often led to tragedy. Yu Quan’s fiery nature might have cost him favor, but instead, he died renowned—a fortunate outcome that also reflects King Wen’s wisdom.

After King Wen’s death, his son Xiong Yun ascended the throne as King Cheng of Chu. Under his rule, Chu annexed many small states in the Yangtze and Han river basins, becoming a major power in the south. Later, King Mu of Chu succeeded him, further absorbing southern states and extending influence into the Central Plains. However, having seized power by killing his father, King Mu’s reign was marked by severe internal strife. Upon his death, King Zhuang of Chu rose to the throne, becoming a new hegemon during the Spring and Autumn period, following in the footsteps of Duke Huan of Qi and Duke Wen of Jin.

At the beginning of King Zhuang’s reign, the state of Jin took advantage of Chu’s mourning and formed an alliance with Song, Lu, Chen, Cai, and other states, reclaiming its position as hegemon. Confronted with this, King Zhuang did not challenge Jin directly. Instead, he indulged in luxury for three years, neglecting governance and issuing no decrees, spending his days in pleasure. He detested ministers who dared to offer advice, decreeing that anyone who attempted to counsel him would be put to death.

Eventually, a minister named Wu Ju could no longer tolerate the king’s behavior and risked his life to remonstrate. According to the Records of the Grand Historian, when Wu Ju spoke, King Zhuang was embracing Lady Zheng on one side and a Yue woman on the other, surrounded by court musicians and dancers. Wu Ju’s displeasure was restrained; he calmly asked, “There is a bird on the hill that has neither flown nor called for three years. What kind of bird is this?” King Zhuang understood the criticism but did not become angry, responding, “If it flies after three years, it will soar to the heavens; if it calls after three years, its cry will astonish the world.”

Surprisingly, King Zhuang continued his indulgence for months without change, growing even more excessive. At this point, another minister, Su Cong, also risked his life to advise the king. Prepared to die for his words, he sought only to demonstrate loyalty through sacrifice. Unexpectedly, King Zhuang heeded Su Cong’s counsel and promptly began reforming governance. He dismissed corrupt officials and promoted loyal, benevolent ones, including Wu Ju and Su Cong themselves.

King Zhuang’s initial neglect of affairs was not mere debauchery but a calculated disguise, observing the court in silence. When a ruler is incompetent, the villainy of petty officials becomes more exposed. By indulging in pleasure, King Zhuang discerned loyalty and treachery, preparing himself for a meteoric rise. Soon, this ambitious monarch embarked on his path to dominance, with Chu becoming a state capable of rivaling great powers like Jin.

After suppressing the Yan’ao rebellion, the prime minister Zi Yuejiao was killed. Sun Shu’ao then emerged on Chu’s political stage. A man of talent and resolve, his grandfather was once prime minister under King Cheng, and his father had been the military commander before being killed by Zi Yuejiao. After his father’s death, Sun Shu’ao fled with his clan to Qisi. According to the Huainanzi, he once “diverted the waters of Qisi to irrigate the plains of Yunyu.”

Various accounts exist of how Sun Shu’ao became prime minister. The Lüshi Chunqiu suggests he befriended Shen Yin Jing, whom King Zhuang intended to appoint prime minister; Shen recommended Sun Shu’ao instead. The Records of the Grand Historian record that Yu Qiuzi recommended Sun Shu’ao, resigning his own position to let Sun take his place.

During his tenure, Sun Shu’ao governed with a focus on education, supplemented by penal measures, promoting harmony between ruler and subjects. He adhered to principles of justice and cared deeply for the people. Sima Qian wrote that laws guide the people, punishments restrain traitors, and that Sun’s administration was exemplary, earning him the distinction of leading the “Biographies of Upright Officials.” The Lüshi Chunqiu notes that King Jing sent a chariot to welcome Sun Shu’ao as prime minister, and within twelve years, King Zhuang became hegemon, underscoring Sun’s administrative prowess.

Sun Shu’ao established a sound system of statutes and regulations but did not rely solely on harsh punishments, balancing law with moral education. As prime minister, he refined military and civil administration, ensuring all officials performed their duties diligently. Under his governance, the people’s lives stabilized, and the state grew stronger, enabling King Zhuang’s gradual ascent to power. After becoming prime minister, Sun Shu’ao “concentrated the beauty of heaven and earth, gathered the benefits of the nine marshes, enriching the country, making families prosperous and people content, enjoying leisure and industry.”

Beyond governance, Sun Shu’ao made significant contributions elsewhere. In the Battle of Bi against Jin, at a moment when King Zhuang led forces without clear command, Sun ordered Chu’s troops to attack, securing a vital victory in King Zhuang’s quest for supremacy. He also pioneered hydraulic projects, including irrigation works in Qisi and numerous large reservoirs within Jiangling’s territory.

He commissioned the construction of Yicheng, a northern base for Chu’s expansion, strengthening Chu’s military position against Jin and preparing the state for prolonged conflict. King Zhuang once felt Chu’s coinage was too light and ordered heavier coins to be minted. However, these were impractical for daily life, disrupting commerce. Sun Shu’ao advised the king to abandon the heavy coins, a suggestion King Zhuang accepted, restoring normalcy to the economy.

When King Zhuang prepared to wage war on Jin and threatened to execute anyone who dared remonstrate, Sun Shu’ao risked death to counsel him. Thanks to his intervention, “Chu was not endangered, and Jin was pacified.” Under Sun Shu’ao’s stewardship, Chu’s national strength developed rapidly, and the once silent king soon ascended the throne of hegemony with a resounding impact.