Chapter 25: King Wu of Chu Assumes the Royal Title

With the evolution of society and the progress of history, the regions surrounding the Central Plains gradually developed. Beyond the dominance of the State of Qin in the west, a major power capable of hegemony emerged in the south: the State of Chu. As the name implies, Chu was a state established in the Jing-Chu region of the south. In ancient times, constant warfare between clans led to the demise of old lineages and the rise of new ones. A powerful and stable ethnic group requires a long period of assimilation to form, let alone develop into the highest form of governance—a "state." The State of Chu was formed after its ancient ancestors underwent a long process of integration in the Jing-Chu region, eventually establishing a group with a common language, economic life, culture, and psychological identity, which then matured into a state over time.

The State of Chu rose during the early Spring and Autumn period, located south of the Central Plains. The ancestors of Chu can be traced back to Zhuanxu, the grandson of the Yellow Emperor. Zhuanxu, one of the "Five Emperors" and known as the Gaoyang clan, was cited by the Chu poet Qu Yuan in his *Li Sao*: "I am a descendant of the Emperor Gaoyang." Following Zhuanxu, the lineage continued through Cheng, Juanzhang, and Chongli. Chongli, as the great-grandson of Zhuanxu, served as the Fire Official under Emperor Ku of the Gaoxin clan, overseeing religious rites. Chong and Li were originally two separate clans that merged through development. As the Fire Official, Chongli possessed the ability to collect and preserve fire to illuminate the world, earning him the title "Zhurong," meaning "Great Radiance" or "Open and Upright." During the rebellion of the Gonggong clan, Chongli was appointed by Emperor Ku to suppress the uprising, but his failure to eradicate the rebels angered the Emperor, leading to his execution. After his death, his younger brother, Wuhui, succeeded him as the Fire Official, still carrying the title "Zhurong."

Wuhui’s son was named Luzhong, who fathered six sons: Kunwu, Canhu, Pengzu, Huiren, Caoxing, and Jilian. The names of these sons were all associated with their respective fiefdoms. Jilian, who bore the surname Mi, was the ancestor of the Chu royal family. His descendants either scattered into various cities or traveled to remote regions; historical records are sparse, making it difficult to trace their details. However, using the fate of other branches of the lineage as a reference, the descendants of Kunwu and Pengzu were once prosperous but were eventually annihilated by Tang of Shang and King Zhou of Shang, respectively. Thus, the migration of the Chu ancestors southward amidst the frequent tribal wars and the relentless pressure of the powerful Shang Dynasty was a logical course of action.

By the end of the Shang Dynasty and the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty, a descendant of Jilian named Yuxiong emerged. Yuxiong maintained ties with the crumbling Shang Dynasty while simultaneously providing strong support to the emerging Zhou Dynasty, offering counsel to Xibo Jichang and later serving as a senior minister in the court of King Wen of Zhou. This honor greatly elevated the status of the clan and became the political capital upon which the State of Chu relied for survival and development in later centuries.

Xiong Yi, a descendant of Yuxiong, lived during the reign of King Cheng of Zhou. Due to his own merits and the legacy of his ancestors as loyal ministers, King Cheng granted him a fief in the south, with its capital at Danyang—modern-day Zigui, Hubei. This was the initial prototype of the State of Chu. In truth, the symbolic significance of this enfeoffment far outweighed its practical value, as it meant that the existence of Chu as a vassal state was recognized by the Son of Heaven. Besides Xiong Yi, others serving King Cheng at the time included Boqin of Lu, Shumu of Wei, Xie of Jin, and Lü Ji of Qi, which provided a preliminary overview of the distribution of vassal states centered around King Cheng. Although the fief granted to Xiong Yi was not large, its quality was exceptional: it was a strategic crossroads at the junction of three provinces with superior geography, and its flat, fertile land provided essential prerequisites for the survival and growth of Chu.

However, the relationship between Chu and the Zhou Dynasty was not harmonious. The Zhou court consistently treated Chu as a "barbarian minor state," acknowledging its existence but withholding corresponding respect and political status. When the lords gathered for alliances, the ruler of Chu was relegated to performing menial tasks rather than sitting among the nobility. This was undoubtedly a humiliation for Chu, fostering natural resentment toward the Zhou Dynasty. The Zhou court, in turn, adopted a policy of containment and suppression against the rapidly rising Chu, even launching several military expeditions against it. Yet, as Chu grew stronger, it was no longer the weak state it once was. In the face of Zhou’s punitive campaigns, it not only held its own but frequently emerged victorious, leaving the Zhou Dynasty unable to retaliate, losing its "Six Armies," and even witnessing the death of King Zhao of Zhou on foreign soil.

During the reign of King Yi of Zhou (Ji Xie), the royal house of Zhou entered a period of decline. Vassal states began to harbor rebellious intentions, and their uneven development led to frequent mutual warfare. Xiong Qu, a descendant of Xiong Yi and the ruler of Chu, expanded his power, attacking neighboring small states and extending his territory to the Jianghan basin. Through a series of policies, he won the support of the people. His expansion brought regions such as Yong, Yangyue, and E—the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River—under Chu control. These regions were rich in grain and copper mines, providing a powerful guarantee for the strengthening of Chu's economic and military might.

The growth of Chu's influence gave Xiong Qu increasing confidence. Dissatisfied with the titles granted by the Zhou Dynasty, he proclaimed his eldest son, Xiong Wukang, King of Ju’tan; his second son, Xiong Hong, King of E; and his youngest son, Xiong Zhici, King of Yuezhang. These were self-proclaimed titles for rulers positioned in the remote regions of Chu along the Yangtze.

After King Li of Zhou ascended the throne, he ruled with extreme cruelty. Fearing for the safety of Chu, Xiong Qu renounced these self-proclaimed titles. Upon Xiong Qu’s death, his eldest son, Xiong Wukang, succeeded him. Wukang died young, and Xiong Zhihong took the throne, only to be murdered by his brother, Xiong Yan, who usurped power. Xiong Yan fathered Xiong Yong. In the sixth year of Xiong Yong, King Li of Zhou was forced into exile by his own people due to his tyranny. From this year onward, Chu began to maintain a more explicit historical chronology.

Four years later, his brother Xiong Yan succeeded him, passing away ten years later to be followed by his eldest son, Xiong Shuang. After Xiong Shuang died, his three brothers fought for the throne, and eventually, Jixun emerged victorious, becoming Xiong Xun. After his death, Xiong E succeeded, followed by Xiong Yi, known as Ruo’ao.

During this period, the Zhou Dynasty was under the administration of King Xuan of Zhou. Wars between Zhou and Chu were constant, with each side claiming victories. One event illustrates that Chu had become a focal point of King Xuan’s policy: he relocated Shen Bo to Xie Yi to establish the State of Shen, specifically to guard against Chu incursions. The establishment of Shen indeed served to curb Chu’s growth.

After King Xuan died, his son, King You of Zhou, ascended the throne—the infamous ruler who orchestrated the "lighting of the beacon fires to amuse the lords." From the moment he lost the trust of the world, his tragic fate was sealed. Twenty years into the reign of Ruo’ao, in 771 BC, King You was killed in a rebellion by the Quanrong. The Zhou royal house migrated eastward, marking the end of Western Zhou and the beginning of the Eastern Zhou era. By then, the world was in chaos, and the Zhou royal house was increasingly fading.

Seven years later, Ruo’ao passed away, and Xiong Kan succeeded, titled Xiao’ao. He died six years later, and Xiong Xuan succeeded, known as Fenmao. After Fenmao’s death, his brother Xiong Tong murdered his son and usurped the throne. Upon taking power, Xiong Tong declared himself King Wu of Chu. By this time, Chu had developed for years under the diligent rule of Ruo’ao and Fenmao, possessing a strong military. King Wu inherited a rising southern power that already possessed the capital to unify the region south of the Yangtze. King Wu focused on political governance internally and military conquest externally, constantly expanding his borders and strengthening the state. His 51-year reign made him one of the longest-serving monarchs in Chinese history. At this point, Chu enjoyed unprecedented stability, laying the foundations in politics and economics for its status as a great power during the Spring and Autumn period.

The era in which King Wu of Chu took charge was both the best and worst of times for the various vassal states. As the Zhou Dynasty transitioned from prosperity to decline, its control over the vassals weakened, allowing states to seize opportunities to grow stronger or even profit at the expense of the Zhou court. However, due to differences in geography and human resources, development among the states was severely unbalanced, leading to larger states annexing smaller ones and stronger states consuming the weak. Rulers dared not let their guard down, leading their states through a turbulent environment to struggle for survival and development.

Internal affairs within these states were also unsettled. Expansion brought power shifts, and unequal distribution of interests led to internal conflicts. When such conflicts became irreconcilable, fratricide occurred as a means to reshuffle power and wealth. The cost was national instability and stagnation due to intense internal strife. Examples include the assassination of the "Five Lords" of Jin; the murder of Duke Yin of Lu by Prince Hui; the conflict between Duke Zhuang of Zheng and his brother Duan at Yan; and the assassination of Duke Xiang of Qi by Gongsun Wuzhi, Lian Cheng, and Guan Zhifu.

In contrast, the internal political situation of Chu was relatively stable. King Wu centralized power and was assisted by capable subordinates, leading to steady economic and cultural development. His external expansion was not rash or aggressive, allowing him to fully digest conquered territories and make them effective components of his productive power.

Regarding the title "Wu," the *Exegesis of Posthumous Titles* states: "To be firm, strong, and upright in principle is called 'Wu.'" This fully reflects King Wu of Chu’s personality and governing style. This title was not bestowed by the Zhou Son of Heaven but was self-proclaimed. In the 34th year of his reign, Chu marched against the State of Sui. There were three reasons for choosing Sui: first, Sui was relatively strong among the small states surrounding Chu, and conquering it would serve as a deterrent to others; second, Sui was arrogant, and baiting it into a show of force would unsettle neighboring small states, creating division and facilitating Chu’s future absorption of them; third, Sui was of the Ji surname, so striking at it would undermine the prestige of the Zhou Dynasty.

When the Chu army approached, Sui sent its Junior Tutor to negotiate with King Wu, claiming innocence. The King replied that Chu’s intention was to contribute to the stability of the Central Plains, hoping the ruler of Sui could petition the Zhou Son of Heaven on his behalf to grant him a royal title. The Junior Tutor agreed, and King Wu withdrew his troops. Upon returning, the Junior Tutor cited the chaotic formation and unkempt appearance of the Chu army to urge the ruler of Sui to pursue them. The official Ji Liang dissuaded him, saying: "Chu is currently favored by Heaven; their chaotic appearance is a ruse to lure us into a trap. Why should the Prince be in such a hurry? The ability of a small state to resist a large one lies in the small state having the 'Way' while the large one lacks virtue. Having the 'Way' means being loyal to the people and faithful to the spirits. The court thinks of the people, and the sacrificial rituals are conducted with legitimacy. But now, the people are cold and hungry, and the priests speak nonsense; how can a state succeed under such conditions?"

The ruler of Sui asked: "The cattle and sheep used for sacrifice are fat and of high quality, and the grain is abundant; how is this not loyalty and faith?" Ji Liang replied: "The people are the masters of the spirits. Ancient wise kings prioritized the people and then considered the spirits. When we say the 'cattle and sheep are fat,' it means the people are prosperous; 'grain is full' means there are no disasters; 'wine is sweet' means hearts are free of evil. But now, hearts are in chaos and the spirits have no master. Even if you are wealthy, what blessing is there? If the Prince cultivates clear politics, promotes harmony, and is friendly to neighbors, only then can you avoid disaster." The ruler of Sui accepted this advice and did not pursue the Chu army, focusing instead on internal politics and national defense. For a time, Chu dared not strike again. However, the petition by the ruler of Sui was sternly rejected by the Zhou Son of Heaven. With his hopes dashed, the King of Chu, in his indignation, declared himself King, adopting the title "Wu."

Yet, the path to hegemony for Chu was not smooth. In the eighth year of Duke Huan of Lu (704 BC), King Wu held an alliance at Shenlu, but among the surrounding states, only Sui and Huang did not attend. King Wu sent Yuan Zhang to rebuke Huang, while he personally led an army to attack Sui. The ruler of Sui ignored the loyal advice of his generals and instead followed the shallow words of his Junior Tutor, rashly sending out his troops. The armies of Chu and Sui fought between the Han and Huai rivers. The Sui army was soundly defeated, the ruler fled, and the Junior Tutor was captured. Sui was forced to sue for peace and sign a treaty under the city walls. Through this, Chu’s name resonated in all directions.

A year later, the State of Ba sent an envoy, expressing a desire to help Chu build ties with the State of Deng in hopes of establishing friendly relations. Chu sent an envoy to accompany the Ba representative to Deng, but they were ambushed and killed within Deng’s territory. When Chu demanded accountability, Deng refused to admit fault. Chu and Ba then joined forces to attack Deng. After the Deng army repelled three attacks from Ba, the Chu general Dou Lian hid his troops within the Ba ranks, feigned defeat to lure the Deng army into a pursuit, and then surrounded them once they were deep in enemy territory. The Deng army was no match.

In the 11th year of Duke Huan of Lu (701 BC), Chu thwarted a conspiracy by the five small states of Yun, Sui, Jiao, Zhou, and Liao to attack them. Qu Xia and Dou Lian, without reporting to the King or requesting reinforcements, divided their forces. The former held off the coalition of four states while the latter launched a surprise attack on the capital of Yun, winning a complete victory and successfully securing alliances with the states of Er and Zhen. The following year, to avenge themselves against Jiao, Chu attacked, utilizing the state's impulsiveness and greed to lure them into a trap and capture their city.

However, Chu’s victories did not last indefinitely. Two years later, the previously decorated general Qu Xia led a campaign against the State of Luo. Past victories had blinded him, making him arrogant and stubborn. During the army's river crossing, he failed to take precautions and was ambushed, suffering a crushing defeat. He hanged himself in a desolate valley to pay for his failure to his people. This defeat severely dampened Chu’s morale and struck a blow to its national power, forcing the state to enter a period of rest and recuperation, halting its expansion for several years.

In the fourth year of Duke Zhuang of Lu (690 BC), after ten years of cultivating its strength, Chu had seen steady growth in agriculture, handicrafts, and military power. Specifically, in armaments, they vigorously developed halberd infantry, utilizing the halberd as a composite of spear and dagger-axe to create a new combat formation—the "Jing Formation." That same year, the Marquis of Sui, under pressure from the Zhou Son of Heaven, apologized for acknowledging Chu’s self-proclaimed title, which enraged King Wu and provoked a war.

Though nearly seventy, King Wu insisted on leading the army himself. Before departing, he felt unsettled and asked his wife, Lady Deng, for her thoughts. She sighed, noting that the King’s time was near and that his unease was a summoning from the ancestors; leading the army would be dangerous, and it would be a blessing just to keep the army intact. King Wu ignored her and insisted on leading the expedition, but he fell ill on the way and died beneath a tree.

The Chu army kept his death a secret, continuing their advance on Sui and surrounding the city completely. Knowing he could not win, the ruler of Sui again sought peace. The Chu commander, Qu Zhong, met with him at the bend of the Han River, conducting an alliance in the name of King Wu before withdrawing. Only after the army returned to Chu territory was the news of his death released, leading to national mourning and the succession of King Wen of Chu.

King Wu reigned for over fifty years, transforming Chu from a regional power into a great state capable of dominating the region, intimidating other lords, and casting its gaze upon the Central Plains, eventually shaking the foundations of the Zhou Dynasty. Under his leadership, Chu achieved victory after victory, annexed territory, and became the undisputed hegemon of the region south of the Yangtze.