Chapter 20: The Development of the Jin State

After Duke Wen of Jin decisively defeated the Chu army at the Battle of Chengpu, he did not allow victory to cloud his judgment; instead, he reinforced military discipline and ensured that rewards and punishments were strictly administered. During the battle, the center division of the Jin army encountered a gale by a lake, resulting in the loss of their left banner. The Jin Sima (Minister of War) executed those responsible according to military law, serving as a stern warning to the allied lords present. Following the triumphant return, when the Jin army crossed the Yellow River, a man named Zhou Zhiqiao violated orders by returning to the state of Jin ahead of the rest of the army. Upon his return, Duke Wen first presented his captives at the ancestral temple, hosted a grand banquet for his officials, and rewarded his troops. Finally, he publicly denounced Zhou Zhiqiao’s act of insubordination and had him executed to deter others. The people were deeply impressed by Duke Wen’s ability to uphold impartial justice.

After rectifying military discipline, Duke Wen reorganized the military structure and expanded his armed forces to prepare for future campaigns. Before the Battle of Chengpu, Jin possessed only two armies, but in preparation for the conflict, Duke Wen ordered the creation of a third. After the war, with Jin’s power greatly increased and having secured the mandate from the Zhou King to punish rebellious states, he added two more armies, establishing a force of five, a number unseen among the vassal states of that era.

According to the Rites of Zhou, major states were to have three armies, secondary states two, and minor states one. Duke Wen’s expansion to three armies signaled that Jin had emerged from the shadows of internal strife and possessed the military might to rival the great state of Chu. The subsequent expansion to five armies signified that Jin had surpassed ordinary major states to become a "superpower" capable of standing on equal footing with the Zhou royal house, laying a solid foundation for future campaigns.

Several months after the Jiantu Alliance, Duke Wen convened the lords again at Wen, the fief of the Jin official Zhao Cui. Rulers from Lu, Qi, Cai, Zheng, Chen, Ju, Zhu, and Qin gathered to discuss joint military actions against disobedient states. To demonstrate the authority of the assembly and the prestige of Jin, Duke Wen invited King Xiang of Zhou to the site to receive the homage of the lords. Since Duke Wen was a subject and King Xiang was the sovereign, such a summons was ritually improper; therefore, it was claimed that the King was merely on a hunting expedition, and Duke Wen personally led the lords to pay their respects at the King’s residence. The *Spring and Autumn Annals*, known for its subtle and profound language, practiced the art of "concealing the faults of the honorable," thus recording the event as "The Son of Heaven hunted at Heyang."

At this assembly, the lords resolved the situation regarding the state of Wei. Wei had been an ally of Chu, sharing marital ties and serving as guides for the Chu army; furthermore, Duke Cheng of Wei had previously offended Duke Wen. Upon hearing of Chu’s defeat and Jin’s victory, Duke Cheng fled to Chen. When Duke Wen invited the lords to the assembly, Duke Cheng, fearing retribution, dared not refuse but was terrified of being executed. He sent the official Yuan Xuan to assist his younger brother, Shu Wu, in attending the assembly, while keeping Yuan Xuan’s son, Jiao, at his side as a hostage.

Soon, someone slandered Yuan Xuan to Duke Cheng, claiming, "Yuan Xuan has installed Shu Wu as ruler, and you have been abandoned." Enraged, Duke Cheng ordered Jiao’s execution without verifying the truth. Heartbroken and furious, Yuan Xuan nevertheless continued his duties, as Wei was in a precarious state with Jin watching closely. The people of Wei, already dissatisfied with Duke Cheng, were further alienated by his gullibility and cruelty. With Jin promising to restore Wei’s status, the populace began to consider installing a new ruler.

To stabilize the situation, the Wei official Ning Wuzi convened a meeting at Wanpu, sincerely declaring, "Heaven has brought disaster upon Wei, causing strife between ruler and subject. But I ask you: if no one remains in the state, who will guard the altars of the soil and grain? If no one goes abroad, who will secure our borders? I swear with you today: those who go abroad need not fear betrayal at home, and those who remain need not fear unjust accusations. If this oath is broken, may Heaven strike us down!" Comforted by this, the people of Wei abandoned thoughts of rebellion.

However, the exiled Duke Cheng, unaware of this, heard rumors of Shu Wu’s "usurpation" and rushed back to Wei. Shu Wu, who was washing his hair, was overjoyed to hear of his brother’s return and rushed out to greet him, his hair still wet. Duke Cheng’s followers, believing the rumor, shot and killed Shu Wu on sight. Upon seeing his brother’s body, Duke Cheng realized the truth—that Shu Wu had come out in joy to welcome him home. Overcome with grief and regret, he collapsed over his brother’s body and wept bitterly. The killer, Gongzi Chuquan, fled in fear but was later hunted down and executed by Duke Cheng.

Yuan Xuan, fearing for his life, fled to Jin. Duke Wen, then at the assembly at Wen, summoned Duke Cheng to confront Yuan Xuan. The Wei officials Ning Wuzi, Zhen Zhuangzi, and Shi Rong acted as counsel for Duke Cheng. Historians note this as the earliest recorded instance of legal defense in Chinese literature. However, the tribunal ruled against Duke Cheng. Duke Wen ordered the execution of Shi Rong, sentenced the higher-ranking Zhen Zhuangzi to amputation, and spared Ning Wuzi only out of admiration for his loyalty. Duke Wen then had Duke Cheng imprisoned in the capital and sent Yuan Xuan back to Wei to install Gongzi Xia as the new ruler.

This trial cemented Duke Wen’s role as Hegemon, marking his first exercise of the power to "respect royal orders and pacify the four states" as mandated by King Xiang. He went on to besiege Zheng, forcing Chu to sue for peace, and supported Wei in pacifying the Di people. Though he used his position to aggressively suppress dissent, his hegemony ended the power vacuum following the death of Duke Huan of Qi, reversing the decline of the Central Plains and protecting the region from the encroachment of the Di and Chu.

In the 32nd year of Duke Xi of Lu (628 BCE), Duke Wen, the legendary Hegemon, passed away. Legend has it that as his coffin was being transported from the capital of Jiang to Quwo, the ancestral burial ground, a sound like the lowing of an ox emanated from the casket. An oracle interpreted this to the bewildered ministers: "The late Duke is issuing a command: An army will arrive from the west; if you engage them, you shall achieve a great victory!"

While recorded in the *Zuo Zhuan*, this story seemed to possess a strange foresight, predicting the era of southern campaigns and northern conquests that would define the state of Jin after Duke Wen’s passing.

Duke Wen was succeeded by his son, the Crown Prince Huan, known as Duke Xiang of Jin. Though his reign was short, he inherited his father’s ambition and strategic vision, waging a series of foreign wars that prevented the tragic collapse that followed the reign of Duke Huan of Qi, thereby maintaining Jin’s hegemony.

At that time, Duke Mu of Qin, ignoring the advice of his elder minister Jian Shu, led an army to attack Zheng. After being blocked, he turned to destroy the state of Hua. When the Jin official Xian Zhen learned of this, he urged Duke Xiang to strike, arguing that Qin’s arrogance and overextended forces were a heaven-sent opportunity. Despite concerns from official Luan Zhi regarding the favor the late Duke Wen had received from Qin, Xian Zhen insisted that the late Duke’s death and Qin’s unprovoked attack on their kinsmen justified the strike, famously stating, "To indulge an enemy for a day is a calamity for generations."

Duke Xiang agreed and mobilized the army. Because he was still in mourning, he dyed his white mourning robes black and led his forces to battle. The Jin army won a crushing victory at Mount Xiao, capturing the three main commanders of Qin, including Meng Mingshi, the son of the renowned minister Baili Xi. Only after this victory did Duke Xiang hold the funeral for his father in his black robes, a color that became the standard for Jin mourning thereafter.

Although Duke Xiang’s mother, Wen Ying, a daughter of Duke Mu of Qin, persuaded him to release the captive generals, Xian Zhen was furious, berating the Duke for throwing away the fruits of the soldiers' labor. Later, while leading an army against the Di, Xian Zhen, overwhelmed by shame for his previous outburst against his sovereign, threw himself into the enemy ranks and died in battle. The Di returned his head, which appeared as if he were still alive, leaving Duke Xiang deeply shaken.

Duke Xiang showered favor upon Xian Zhen’s son, Xian Qieju, and eventually promoted the talented Xi Que to the rank of Qing after his success against the Di. Following victories over Qin and the Di, Jin challenged the rising power of Chu. Though the ensuing skirmishes resulted in no clear winner, the Chu minister Zishang was executed by his own King due to slanderous accusations of bribery, further weakening Chu.

Duke Xiang eventually turned his attention to the state of Wei, which had become defiant under the restored Duke Cheng. After a successful campaign that captured the territory of Qi, Duke Cheng was forced to submit. Having successfully navigated the threats of Qin, the Di, and Chu, and having secured domestic stability, Duke Xiang of Jin proved himself a ruler of great capability, ensuring that the hegemony of Jin endured long after his father’s passing.